Category: Biography

The Life And Influence Of Clement Of Rome

            For the past two thousand years Christians have been wrestling with the notion of how to best communicate the truths of Christ in the world of “today.” As the ebbs and flows of culture and worldview shift through each generation we are constantly faced with the task of remaining true to the doctrines of scripture while at the same time figuring out how to apply those truths. For us to better understand how to do this it could be best to look at how the church in the first post-apostolic generation found their theological and practical footing in the world around them.

            To come to an understanding of how the church is to operate beyond the era of the Apostles we must go back to the beginning and observe one of the earliest post-apostolic writers and figureheads of the church in that era, Clement of Rome. By learning how that second generation of the church interpreted the scriptures and lived out their lives we discover a compass by which we can better navigate our own faith within this era of history. Therefore, we must ask the question of who was Clement of Rome and what impact did his epistle to the Corinthians have on the Christian community of his era?

Setting the Stage

            Before we can come to a better understanding of the man Clement of Rome we first need to reconstruct the world he lived in. In many ways the world of Clement was no different that the world we see presented in the book of Acts. Rome remains supreme throughout the Mediterranean and parts of the Near East, although there was much turmoil along Germanic borders. In this era Rome inched closer to the zenith of its power under a mix of benevolent and tyrannical rulers. It is at this point in which Domitian laid claim to the throne in 86AD following the death of his older brother Titus, the same Titus who oversaw the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD.

            Unlike his father Vespasian and his brother Titus, “Domitian’s personal ambition coupled with the worship of the Roman state created a new politico-religious atmosphere inimical to the growing church.”[1] He revitalized the Imperial cult as a means to consolidate his power and unify Roman religious practices. Domitian even went as far as to demand the funds (temple taxes) which used to go to the Temple in Jerusalem be reallocated to Rome.[2] Domitian was seen as a tyrant by many but managed to maintain the allegiance of the army, that is until his murder in 96 AD. The death of Domitian ended the dynasty of Vespasian and ushered in the short reign of Nerva from 96-98 AD and the relatively longer reign of Trajan from 98-117 AD which saw Rome reach the climax of its territorial control.

            On the outskirts of the power and politics of Rome we find that the church which began under the likes of James, Barnabas, Peter and Paul was continuing to grow despite persecution and conflict. In the era of Clement the church is faced with discerning how they are to live out their faith following the deaths of Peter, Paul and the rest of the apostles, with the exception of John. With the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD the “capital” of the church had moved to Antioch in Syria and “by the end of the fourth century Antioch was a city of half a million people and half of these were Christians.”[3] Other centers of influence such as Rome, Ephesus, Corinth and Alexandria were also developing as centers of Christian influence.

            Upon the established roads and shipping lanes of the Roman Empire the church continued to grow and thrive. Yet this growth was not without pain or conflict as in this era the church was occupied with resisting religious syncretism (i.e. Corinthian Christians eating in pagan Temples), the remnants of the Judaizers, Gnostics incursions, and renewed emphasis on the Imperial Cult and Roman Pantheon and emergence of early heretics such as the Nicolaitans, and the followers of Cerinthus. In many ways “the early Christian was almost bound to divorce himself from the social and economic life of his time”[4] as the culture around them was in many ways contrary to the teachings of Christ. Because of these challenges the church at this time was forced to better organize itself and establish a form of hierarchy and communication between its major centers.

            With the continued growth of the church and the reforms under Domitian being enforced eventually the two forces collided. In a persecution not seen since the era of Nero we find the foundations of the latter life of Clement. The church historian Eusebius records that:

Domitian, having shown great cruelty toward many, and having unjustly put to death no small number of well-born and notable men at Rome, and having without cause exiled and confiscated the property of a great many other illustrious men, finally became a successor of Nero in his hatred and enmity toward God.[5]

            Domitian persecuted not just Jews and Christians[6] but also family members on charges of atheism, going as far as executing his cousin Flavius Clement.[7] Yet it also appears that Domitian was benevolent to the likes of the Jewish historian Josephus[8] during this era of persecution which reached its climax not long before Clement wrote his epistle to the Corinthians.

Who Was Clement of Rome?

            With the setting established we may now begin our investigation into who Clement of Rome[9] was and what his role within the church involved and how he left an impact upon it. It is believed that Clement was born around 30 AD and lived until 100 AD as his death is mention by Jerome who states, “he died in the third year of Trajan and a church built at Rome preserves the memory of his name unto this day.”[10] This timing implies that Clement was a contemporary of the Apostles in his early life and co-laborer with the likes of Hermas, Ignatius, and Polycarp later in life. Clement’s ministry can be seen then as being one of the bridges between the apostolic age and the age of the martyrs.

            When it comes to establishing the identity of Clement there is debate whether he was the same Clement mentioned in Philippians 4:3 by Paul. Early Christian “writers such as Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome[11] supposed this Clement to be the apostolic father known as Clement of Rome. Modern scholars, however, believe this identification is highly unlikely.”[12] This conflict between ancient opinions and modern conjecture clouds the possibility of Clement of Rome being the aforementioned companion of Paul yet it does not diminish his standing in the church during this era.

            The platform by which Clement was able to deliver his epistle to the Corinthians came from his appointment as bishop of Rome. There is debate7 whether he was the second or fourth bishop after Peter, this stems from the notion that “Linus and Cletus could not have been Bishops of Rome, for they were merely coadjutors of the Apostles during their lifetime… and thus he (Clement) should unquestionably be made the first of the Roman bishops.”[13] Despite the debate of whether Clement was second or fourth bishop of Rome, Clement’s presence in Rome and his appointment presents the possibility that he was an acquaintance of the apostle Peter[14] who died in 66 AD in the same city. Recognition of Clements rank as bishop can be found in “the Shepherd of Hermas, a work not later than the episcopate of Pius (a.d. 141–156), the writer of which claims to have been contemporary with Clement.”[15]

The Epistle to the Corinthians

            Being one of the early bishops of Rome was not all that Clement was known for, perhaps his greatest contribution to the early days of the post-apostolic age of the church comes in the form of his epistle to the Corinthian church. The epistle opens with a reference to a persecution[16]  which is most likely the one perpetrated by Domitian rather than Nero.

It appears from chapter 5 to be later than the persecution in the time of Nero, and from chapters 42–44 it is clear that the age of the apostles is regarded as past. It can therefore scarcely be older than 75–80 a.d. On the other hand chapter 44 speaks of presbyters who were appointed by the apostles and were still alive, and there is no trace of any of the controversies or persecutions of the second century.[17]

            These additional factors along with other circumstances led many to believe that the epistle was written around 96 AD[18], and perhaps as early as 94 AD[19]. If this dating is correct it would mean that the epistle was written at roughly the same time as the later estimated dating of the book of Revelation.[20]

            Given the apparent dating of this epistle it would make it “probably the earliest extant Christian epistle outside the NT.”[21] In part to this early date and its popularity among various churches in the following decades it is no wonder why it was included in various early collections of scriptures[22] along with the likes of Shepherd of Hermas, and Epistle of Barnabas. The validity and popularity of this early document is given extra weight by Eusebius’ comments:

There is extant an epistle of this Clement which is acknowledged to be genuine and is of considerable length and of remarkable merit. He wrote it in the name of the church of Rome to the church of Corinth, when a sedition had arisen in the latter church. We know that this epistle also has been publicly used in a great many churches both in former times and in our own.[23]

            As we begin to examine the epistle, we are presented with a Corinthian church which is forty or so years removed from Paul’s letters to it. In many ways we can see this as the second generation of the Church in Corinth. This letter then gives us a glimpse into how the church grew and changed in the light of Paul’s three epistles which were sent to it. Unfortunately, it appears that very little changed in the Corinthian Church in the years between Paul and Clement as once again a schism had broken out which needed a remedy. What is interesting here is that instead of an apostolic office offering council we instead see the church in Rome through Clement attempting to intervene in the crisis. “The Roman Church now intervenes because of Christian concern over this distressing situation, not because it claims authority over other churches.”[24]

            The issue at hand at Corinth stems from a rebellion by younger members of the congregation who were attempting to steal authority from their elders (presbyters). Others[25] view the issue as having to do in part with these younger men being unsatisfied with the financial provisions which were being sent to them by the church in Rome. Clement in his own words highlights the schism which had arisen early in the letter:

It is disgraceful, beloved, yea, highly disgraceful, and unworthy of your Christian profession, that such a thing should be heard of as that the most stedfast and ancient Church of the Corinthians should, on account of one or two persons, engage in sedition against its presbyters.[26]

            This dispute in Corinth presented the church an opportunity to continue to refine its process of establishing a sense of order and episcopal succession following the apostolic age. This epistle then becomes an added source outside of Paul and Peters epistles which could be used to better govern the church even in times of dispute.

            Aside from the schism Clement’s epistle addresses a host of other topics such as a renewed call to holy living and the eradication of envy from the hearts of his readers. Clement attempts to achieve this through the use of rhetoric and instruction. Clement “tells no stories from the Gospels about Jesus’ wonders but appeals, rather, to Jesus’ words of moral instruction.”[27] In many ways Clement follows in the footsteps of Paul in how he presents his ideas in a logical way which appeals to the scriptures and calls on the people to live according to Christ’s standards.

            The epistle covers a variety of topics in order to hammer home its original purpose of bringing the rebels to repentance (ch. 48-53) and resetting the spiritual foundation of the Corinthian church. The epistle covers matters such as the deaths of Peter and Paul (ch. 5), God’s desire for people to repent (ch. 8), examples of faithful people in the Old Testament (ch. 9-12), faith vs. good works (ch. 32-34) and the need for order and structure in the church (ch. 40-41).

            Clement is able to ground his key arguments with a heavy use of the Old Testament (LXX) scriptures which make up almost a quarter[28] of the epistle’s contents and references books such as Psalms, Isaiah and Deuteronomy. The epistle also contains a variety of quotations from New Testament books such as Matthew, Romans, 1 Corinthians, James and Hebrews. The use of these books by Clement demonstrate how these “books that later became part of the NT canon were circulating among the churches by the end of the first century.”[29] Clement’s epistle to the Corinthians then can be seen as a great theological work which establishes a precedent of relying heavily on what would be known as both the Old Testament and the New Testament albeit with “Hellenistic cultural influences which have merged with the Judaeo-Christian element.”[30]

The Legacy of Clement of Rome

            It appears that it did not take long for Clement’s epistle to gain popularity and favor within the larger Christian church. The likes of Irenaeus,[31] Clement of Alexandria[32] and Origen[33] attest to the lasting influence of Clement’s work. In the Corinthian church itself we have evidence that this epistle was read regularly for decades[34] and perhaps even longer. It is an epistle which stands apart from its post-apostolic contemporaries and is free from“the curious exegetics of Barnabas, the theological crudities of Hermas, the fervid sacerdotalism of Ignatius; and it is a comparison which may serve to show the emergence of the characteristic Roman Christianity.”

            Perhaps in an unorthodox manner we can establish the popularity and influence of an early writer such as Clement by the pseudographical works attributed to them later on. While the first epistle to the Corinthians is attributed to Clement several other works have had his name (for various reasons) attached to them. These works include 2 Clement, the Recognitions of Clement, various letters to James (the brother of Jesus) and a pair of epistles dealing with the matter of virginity. With this wide use of Clement’s name in pseudographical works it becomes clear that he was held in high esteem in the decades and centuries following the apostolic age.

Conclusion

            After investigating the historical setting of Clement in the latter part of the first century and witnessing the purpose and contents of his epistle to the Corinthians we finally begin to grasp the importance of Clement and his epistle in not only his era but also the following generations. Clement was seen as the first major successor to Peter as bishop of Rome and utilized his position and extensive knowledge of the scriptures to present an epistle to aid the struggling Corinthian church. In doing so he established a better format of deploying organizational force within the church while also exhorting the people to continue in the teachings of the apostles who only a generation earlier had begun to change the world.

            Clement then is seen as the first pillar of the post-apostolic church who validated the continued use of the Old Testament, demonstrated use of what would become the New Testament and established what would be the hallmark of Roman Christianity: an intellectual approach based on reason and rhetoric in order to renew and refine the inner spirit of those who follow Christ. Therefore, it seems best to end with the words of Clement and his exhortation to a church founded by Paul but kept alive through his spiritual successors.

And we, too, being called by His will in Christ Jesus, are not justified by ourselves, nor by our own wisdom, or understanding, or godliness, or works which we have wrought in holiness of heart; but by that faith through which, from the beginning, Almighty God has justified all men; to whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen.[35]

[1] Merrill Chapin Tenney, New Testament Times (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2004), 324.

[2] Justo Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity Volume 1: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation 2nd  edition (New York, NY: HarperOne, 2010), 46.

[3] Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, Updated 2nd ed. (Dallas, TX: Word Pub., 1995), 29.

[4] Shelley, Church History , 40.

[5] Eusebius of Caesaria, “The Church History of Eusebius,” in Eusebius: Church History, Life of Constantine the Great, and Oration in Praise of Constantine, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, trans. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, vol. 1, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series (New York: Christian Literature Company, 1890), 147.

[6] Christianity was not recognized as an official religion at this time since it was firmly divided from Judaism.

[7] James Stevenson, A New Eusebius: Documents Illustrating the History of the Church to AD 337 (London: SPCK, 1987), 6.

[8] Josephus, The Life, Against Apion, ed. T. E. Page et al., trans. H. J. Thackeray, vol. I, The Loeb Classical Library (London; Cambridge, MA: William Heinemann Ltd; Harvard University Press, 1966), 157–159.

[9] aka Clemens Romanus.

[10] Jerome, “Lives of Illustrious Men,” in Theodoret, Jerome, Gennadius, Rufinus: Historical Writings, Etc., ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, trans. Ernest Cushing Richardson, vol. 3, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series (New York: Christian Literature Company, 1892), 366.

[11] Ibid, 366.

[12] Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, and R. K. Harrison, Thomas Nelson Publishers, eds., Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1995).

[13] Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, eds., “Decrees of Fabian,” in Fathers of the Third and Fourth Centuries: The Twelve Patriarchs, Excerpts and Epistles, the Clementina, Apocrypha, Decretals, Memoirs of Edessa and Syriac Documents, Remains of the First Ages, trans. S. D. F. Salmond, vol. 8, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1886), 641.

[14] Ibid, 122.

[15] George Salmon, “Clemens Romanus,” ed. William Smith and Henry Wace, A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines (London: John Murray, 1877–1887), 554.

[16] Clement of Rome, “The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 5.

[17] Pope Clement I et al., The Apostolic Fathers, ed. Kirsopp Lake, vol. 1, The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge MA; London: Harvard University Press, 1912–1913), 4–5.

[18] F. L. Cross and Elizabeth A. Livingstone, eds., The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford;  New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 363.

[19] Henry Bettenson, ed., The Early Christian Fathers: A Selection from the Writings of the Fathers from St. Clement of Rome to St. Athanasius, trans. Henry Bettenson (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 2.

[20] Merrill Chapin Tenney, New Testament Times (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2004), 338.

[21] Walter A. Elwell and Philip Wesley Comfort, Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale Reference Library (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2001), 292.

[22] Rick Brannan, “Apostolic Fathers,” ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

[23] Eusebius of Caesaria, “The Church History of Eusebius,” in Eusebius: Church History, Life of Constantine the Great, and Oration in Praise of Constantine, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, trans. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, vol. 1, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series (New York: Christian Literature Company, 1890), 147.

[24] Henry Bettenson, ed., The Early Christian Fathers: A Selection from the Writings of the Fathers from St. Clement of Rome to St. Athanasius, trans. Henry Bettenson (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 2.

[25] Laurence L. Welborn, “Clement, First Epistle of,” ed. David Noel Freedman, The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 1059.

[26] Clement of Rome, “The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 18.

[27] Luke Timothy Johnson, Among the Gentiles: Greco-Roman Religion and Christianity (New Haven;  London: Yale University Press, 2009), 195.

[28] Matthew A. Wilcoxen, “Clement, First Letter of,” ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary   (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

[29] Walter A. Elwell and Philip Wesley Comfort, Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale Reference Library (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2001), 293.

[30] Manlio Simonetti, Biblical Interpretation in the Early Church: An Historical Introduction to Patristic Exegesis (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994), 12.

[31] Irenaeus of Lyons, “Irenæus against Heresies,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 416.

[32] Clement of Alexandria, “The Stromata, or Miscellanies,” in Fathers of the Second Century: Hermas, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Clement of Alexandria (Entire), ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 2, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 428.

[33] Origen, “De Principiis,” in Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, trans. Frederick Crombie, vol. 4, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 273.

[34] Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, Updated 2nd ed. (Dallas, TX: Word Pub., 1995), 61–62.

[35] Clement of Rome, “The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 13.

  
The Life And Influence Of Clement Of Rome Cameron Conway is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
 

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Who is the Prophet Samuel

            Throughout the Historical Books we encounter a variety of prophets and other people who act as spokesman for the LORD. All of them rose up in times of need and through the guiding of the Holy Spirit were able to deliver messages and be the conduits of both miracles and nation changing events. Each prophet was important to their specific day and time but there is one of these prophets which has had perhaps the most long reaching effect in Israel’s post-wilderness existence. It is therefore my opinion that Samuel was the most influential prophet during the time of the Historical books.

The World of the Prophet Samuel

            Before we can look at the prophet Samuel, the man, we must first understand the world in which he was operating within. The story of Samuel comes about at the end of the Early Iron Age between 1200BC and 1000BC. “This period was a relatively quiet one, both in Canaan and internationally”[1] as most of the major powers including the Egyptians, Hittites, and Assyrians were in a state of relative decline. This paved the way for the period of Samuel to me marked more by skirmishes between smaller neighbouring states.

            Israel at this time was primarily facing against oppression from the Philistines, who despite a set back caused by Samson had re-established themselves as the primary oppressor of Israel. They extended this oppression into the economic sphere by monopolizing the metal working industry. This included banning Israelites from obtaining weapons and by charging over inflated prices for the sharpening of farm tools. The time period which marked the entry of Samuel’s birth and ministry consisted of military and economic on Israel by the Philistines. This makes Israel’s cry for a king later in Samuel’s life much more understandable.

            Knowing the background of Samuel’s place in history we can now survey the life of the prophet himself. Samuel’s story begins with his barren mother in 1 Samuel chapter one. We find Samuel’s mother Hannah weeping and praying at the tabernacle offering a promise that if she would conceive she would dedicate the child to the LORD and that no razor would touch his head (a form of a modified Nazarite vow[2]). Both Eli and God head her prays and a couple of years later (1120BC) she returns with the young child named Samuel which name means “name of God,” or “His name is El” (El: God of strength and power).[3]

The Calling of the Prophet Samuel

            For about a decade Samuel served at the house of the LORD under the watch of Eli until one fateful night, the night the LORD reached out to him. Samuel heard a voice and thought it to be Eli’s but it wasn’t, then it happened a second time, finally the third time Eli the high priest realized what was happening.

            1 Samuel 3:8-11 “8 A third time the Lord called, “Samuel!” And Samuel got up and went to Eli and said, “Here I am; you called me.” Then Eli realized that the Lord was calling the boy. 9 So Eli told Samuel, “Go and lie down, and if he calls you, say, ‘Speak, Lord, for your servant is listening.’ “So Samuel went and lay down in his place. 10 The Lord came and stood there, calling as at the other times, “Samuel! Samuel!” Then Samuel said, “Speak, for your servant is listening.” 11 And the Lord said to Samuel: “See, I am about to do something in Israel that will make the ears of everyone who hears about it tingle…” (NIV)

            At the utterance of that now famous phrase “Speak, Lord, for your servant is listening” Samuel entered into his prophetic calling as the LORD stood before him and spoke about the coming judgment on Eli. As time went on 1 Samuel 3 shows that “19 The Lord was with Samuel as he grew up, and he let none of Samuel’s words fall to the ground. 20 And all Israel from Dan to Beersheba recognized that Samuel was attested as a prophet of the Lord. 21 The Lord continued to appear at Shiloh, and there he revealed himself to Samuel through his word.” In being thus recognized, Samuel was qualifying for his leadership role in serving the nation.”[4]

            This recognition lead Samuel to occupy the roles of prophet, judge and priest in the nation these “three roles are combined in this passage as he leads them in repentance in order to bring about their deliverance.”[5] We see this call to repentance in 1 Samuel 7 following the return of the ark of the Covenant to Israel from Philistine territory. “At the Mizpah national assembly, Samuel ‘judged the people’, calling for repentance and fasting.” [6] As the people were assembled the Philistines came up to fight against this assembly which they interpreted as a rebellion, Samuel acted in the office of judge and priest though the offering of a sacrifice and in the call to battle. With the Philistines pushed back but still causing trouble and peace with the Amorites Samuel took up a regular routine of travelling between Bethel, Gilgal, Mizpah and Ramah to perform his roles of prophet, priest and judge. It is also believed that at this time Samuel established the school of the prophets and routinely visited them on his regular circuit.

Samuel Anoints a King

            After many years of Samuel’s oversight of the nation the people called out to Samuel to give them a king so that they could be like all of the other nations around them. After conversing with the LORD twice about the matter Samuel was told to “Listen to them and give them a king.” This event is one of the reasons why Samuel is seen as the most influential prophets in the Historical Books as it was through him that Israel transformed from a theocratic tribal confederacy to a monarchy. Samuel proceeded to tell the people the price they would have to pay and endure because of this demand but they did not relent.

            By their demands they had taken the first step into having a monarchy like those around them. For “the kings of the ancient world enjoyed nearly limitless power and authority, and regularly claimed divine support for their rule. Kingship was believed to have been lowered from heaven and to have its roots in the original creation and organization of the world. The king functioned as vice-regent for the divine ruler, and it was his duty to preserve order and justice in society.”[7] This is what the people wanted and they felt that first Samuel could not deliver that and secondly, they did not want any of Samuel’s sons to assume the role of judge for they were going down the same path as Eli’s sons.

            When we move to 1 Samuel 9-10 we see Samuel in the role of “king maker” through his discovery and anointing of Saul son of Kish from the tribe of Benjamin. A man literally head and shoulders above the rest who apparently fit the mold of what the people wanted in a king. With the monarchy in place Samuel still remained a prominent figure in Israel and still continued to act as a prophet and a priest. As “with the initiation of kingship, the role of the prophet would now become an advisory one. Rather than leading the people as the recipient of divine messages, the prophet would offer guidance to the king, who would retain the freedom to accept or reject it.

Samuel as an Intercessor

            1 Sam 12:19 also emphasizes the intercessory role of the prophet.”[8] For the next several chapters we encounter several rough encounters between Samuel and Saul. In chapter 13 we see Saul’s impatience get the better of him and he offered the sacrifice in Samuel’s place. Samuel responded to this overstepping of Saul’s authority by proclaiming in 1 Samuel 13:13-14 “13 “You have done a foolish thing you have not kept the command the Lord your God gave you; if you had, he would have established your kingdom over Israel for all time. 14 But now your kingdom will not endure; the Lord has sought out a man after his own heart and appointed him ruler of his people, because you have not kept the Lord’s command.” (NIV) The stage had now through the prophet had been set for a new dynasty to emerge in Israel.

            Unfortunately, Saul did not learn his lesson about heading the words of the prophet, as we see against further disobedience in 1 Samuel 15. Here Samuel had commanded Saul to strike down the Amalekite for what they did to Moses and the people in the wilderness. Samuel commanded that they were to be totally wiped out people and animals, none were to be spared. Saul won the battle but he allowed the people to keep the best of the animals and left king Agag alive. The LORD being grieved at what had happened spoke through Samuel and told Saul “Because you have rejected the word of the Lord, he has rejected you as king.”

            After hearing that Saul fell down and tore the hem of Samuel’s robe (a symbol of his prophetic office) as he grabbed it in a plea for mercy. Samuel then proclaimed in 1 Samuel 15:28-29 “The Lord has torn the kingdom of Israel from you today and has given it to one of your neighbors—to one better than you. 29 He who is the Glory of Israel does not lie or change his mind; for he is not a human being, that he should change his mind.” The last part appears to be a rebuke of how Saul changed his mind and allowed the people to keep the best of the spoils. After that judgement, Samuel in what could be called a momentary reactivation of his role as judge[9] killed king Agag before he left.

Samuel’s Search for a New King

            From here Samuel set out in his next mission to find the king of the new dynasty which would be a man after God’s own heart. In 1 Samuel 16 we find the prophet in Bethlehem and his divinely appointed meeting with a man called Jesse who had eight sons. Among those sons was the youngest, a tender-hearted shepherd named David after the LORD had rejected the other sons. “12 So he sent for him and had him brought in. He was glowing with health and had a fine appearance and handsome features. Then the Lord said, ‘Rise and anoint him; this is the one.’ 13 So Samuel took the horn of oil and anointed him in the presence of his brothers, and from that day on the Spirit of the Lord came powerfully upon David. Samuel then went to Ramah.”

            Going forward Samuel only takes on a minor role in the narrative but it is evident that David remained in contact with him to some degree in the coming years. When David was fleeing Saul, Samuel is one of the people he went to for help, as we see in 1 Samuel 19:18-20. Later in that story Saul himself would come out and begin to prophesy in front of Samuel, in some ways everything had come full circle as upon his anointing Saul also was found among Samuel’s disciples prophesying. This marks the last major event in Samuel’s earthly life as he is not mentioned again until 1 Samuel 25 which speaks of his death and the nations mourning of their loss. This just leaves one final event in the life of Samuel, well not life but afterlife of Samuel. Saul when he was facing the Philistine army desperately wanted to hear from the LORD so he employed the services of a necromancing with in Endor. Through deception he convinced her to summon the prophet Samuel so he could get a message from the LORD. The message he received is recorded in 1 Samuel 28:16-19:

            “Why do you consult me, now that the Lord has departed from you and become your enemy? 17 The Lord has done what he predicted through me. The Lord has torn the kingdom out of your hands and given it to one of your neighbors—to David. 18 Because you did not obey the Lord or carry out his fierce wrath against the Amalekites, the Lord has done this to you today. 19 The Lord will deliver both Israel and you into the hands of the Philistines, and tomorrow you and your sons will be with me. The Lord will also give the army of Israel into the hands of the Philistines.”

Conclusion

            The legacy of Samuel and how he fits into the rest of the Historical Books is found primarily in the monarchy which endured until the exile to Babylon. “Samuel has been called the connecting link between theocracy and monarchy”[10] as he closed out the era of judges and brought in a system of government which effected the rest of Israel’s history. Through Samuel we have the reign of Saul and the reign of David. Through the reign of David we have the Davidic covenant and the promise of the coming Messiah. The remainder of the Old Testament is mere ripples of effect which begun with the life and ministry of Samuel. Samuel also created a precedent of the proper relationship between prophets and kings which would mark the rest of the historical books. There is then “no question, however, that he was a major precursor of the great prophets of the eighth century bce.”[11] Samuel became the model prophet for generations to come and also established the school of the prophets which was still in operation in the days of Elisha.

            After exploring the life of Samuel, I remain committed to the concept that Samuel was the most influential prophet during the time of the Historical books. Even the other writers of scripture place this high opinion on Samuel. Jeremiah declares in Jeremiah 15:1 “Then the Lord said to me: “Even if Moses and Samuel were to stand before me, my heart would not go out to this people. Send them away from my presence! Let them go!” Even the Psalmist in Psalm 99 elevates Samuel to the level of Moses in verse 6 “Moses and Aaron were among his priests, Samuel was among those who called on his name; they called on the Lord and he answered them.”

[1] Howard, David M. An Introduction to he Old Testament Historical Books (Chicago IL; Moody Publishers,   

1993), 169.

[2] Holdcroft, L. Thomas. The Historical Books (Abbotsford BC: CeeTeC Publishing, 2000), 97

[3] Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988), 1890.

[4] Holdcroft, L. Thomas. The Historical Books (Abbotsford BC: CeeTeC Publishing, 2000), 101

[5] Victor Harold Matthews, Mark W. Chavalas, and John H. Walton, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament, electronic ed. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 1 Sa 7:6.

[6] Joyce G. Baldwin, 1 and 2 Samuel: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 8, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1988), 37.

[7] Victor Harold Matthews, Mark W. Chavalas, and John H. Walton, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament, electronic ed. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 1 Sa 8:6.

[8] Ibid, 1 Sa 12:19.

[9] George W. Ramsey, “Samuel (Person),” ed. David Noel Freedman, The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 955.

[10] Holdcroft, L. Thomas. The Historical Books (Abbotsford BC: CeeTeC Publishing, 2000), 107

[11] Richard R. Losch, All the People in the Bible: An A–Z Guide to the Saints, Scoundrels, and Other Characters in Scripture (Grand Rapids, MI; Cambridge, U.K.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 370.

  
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Erasmus The Reluctant Uncle of The Reformation

When studying the history of the continental Reformation our attention is primarily drawn to the so called “fathers” of the Protestant movement such as Zwingli, Calvin and Luther. However, they should be seen as the benefactors of others who set the stage in Europe for the theological quaking of the sixteenth century. One of those precursors of the Reformation was Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (1466 – 1536), commonly known as Erasmus. While relatively unknown in Protestant circles his efforts helped pave the way for the likes of Luther to rise up and critique the established Catholic church. But how exactly did this devout Augustinian monk become what we could call the reluctant uncle of the Reformation?

The Early Years of Erasmus

At the beginning of his life in the Netherlands Erasmus became steeped in the ideas of humanism which were springing up in the latter part of the fifteen century. It was during his early years in Gouda and later Deventer that Erasmus was influenced by famed humanist Alexander Hegius[1] and the Brethren of the Common Life.[2] Following his ordination in 1492 Erasmus began his advanced studies in Paris, Oxford and Turin where he specialized in Biblical Greek. Life was quiet for Erasmus in these early years until he returned to England in 1509 to teach Greek and Divinity, a position which later opened up the door to move to Basle in 1516, one year before Luther posted his 95 Theses.

Despite being a member of the Catholic clergy Erasmus did not fear calling out aspects of the church he disagreed with, despite the danger. Erasmus felt free to call out many questionable practices of his time:

There are monks and theologians who, induced by the savagery of their natures, by stupidity, by the delights of glory or gain, or, indeed, by private animosity, make savage indictments. Not only do their charges consist of trivialities or matters open to debate pro and con, they also perversely misrepresent even perfectly correct statements.”[3]

In true proto-Reformation style Erasmus viewed “most Christians of his age to be more superstitious than pious” [4] and that the monks were “those who, day after day, mumble their way through psalms.”[5]

Live From 1516 it’s Saturday Night

  These observations by Erasmus transformed him into what we would call today a “political satirist.” This willingness to critique “the system” and appeal to the people through sharp tongued humor prepared them for the coming theological storm. In Erasmus’s works Colloquies and the bestselling[6] In Praise of Folly he would blend together satire, Christian doctrine and Greek mythology to illustrate what was wrong with the church and how a Christian should live. Not even some of the reformers would go as far as Erasmus in critiquing the Catholic clergy as being “no better than jackanapes tricked up in gawdy clothes, and asses strutting in lions’ skins.”[7] It can be argued then that from these writings Erasmus challenged how the people viewed the church and instilled in them a the desire for change in that system.

Erasmus the Bible Translator

            Aside from his satirical writings Erasmus was still a scholar who sought to refresh the New Testament to make it more accessible in his generation. He determined to update the Latin text from its archaic form into a more modern style[8] and to produce a parallel Greek version of the New Testament inspired by Byzantine Textual tradition.[9] This work came together in 1516 as Erasmus’s Swiss publisher Johann Froben desired to be the first to market[10] with a new Greek New Testament motivating Erasmus completed the first edition[11] of what would later be called Novum Testamentum in only ten months.

            This translation of the New Testament garnered both praise and criticism as several of his attempts to restore the text conflicted with several Catholic traditions. Erasmus was begrudgingly convinced to “correct” many of his changes in subsequent editions as “preachers warned from the pulpit against a man who dared to alter the Our Father and the Magnificat.”[12] For the first time in centuries long held Latin doctrine was forced to face Greek scripture as the people were witnessing the detours Latin doctrines had taken. For the later Reformers this scriptural restoration by Erasmus along with his quote “but there is… no one who cannot be a theologian.”[13] have contributed to the idea of sola scriptura.

Erasmus and the Reformation

Through his New Testament translations and his Paraphrases Erasmus was recognized as “the most widely influential New Testament scholar of his time.” [14] Later reformers such as Martin Luther, William Tyndale and Theodore Beza would base their own translations on Erasmus’s works. Even the creation of the King James Bible the pinnacle of Reformation biblical translations was based on works derived from Erasmus[15] making him one of the greatest influencers of the Reformation over the centuries.

As the Reformation dragged on people began to equate Erasmus’s critiques of the church and his teachings of humanism with the ideas of the Protestants. This left Erasmus facing the wrath of inquisitors and the censuring of his writings as “the conservative Catholics, on their part, viewed him as treacherous and unfaithful to the status quo.”[16] Erasmus was even driven to appeal to Charles V for support in a letter where he speaks of how “I have roused up against me the whole Lutheran faction, which I wish were not as widespread.”[17] Yet Reformers such as Zwingli, Melanchthon and close friend John a Lasco[18] still respected Erasmus. Even Martin Luther one of his fiercest opponents once commented, “I give you (Erasmus) hearty praise and commendation on this further account—that you alone, in contrast with all others, have attacked the real thing, that is, the essential issue.”[19]

Erasmus set the stage for the Reformation and unknowingly prepared the people for a change in how the church and clergy operated and in trying to bring people back to a simple approach to the scripture based on logic and piety. These were ideas the early Reformers resonated with and used them in their own challenges against the church. While Luther can be seen as the Father of the Reformation, he could not of had the impact on continental Europe without the shadow of Erasmus hanging overhead. While Erasmus never left the Catholic church his reception by the early Reformers truly made him not a father of the movement but an uncle of it, even if he was reluctant to be counted among their number.

Conclusion

After displaying the life and influence of Erasmus upon the Reformation I can find no better way conclude than with the words of Erasmus himself:

I perceive now, that, for a concluding treat, you expect a formal epilogue, and the summing up of all in a brief recitation; but I will assure you, you are grossly mistaken if you suppose that after such a hodge-podge medley of speech I should be able to recollect anything I have delivered.[20]

     [1] F. L. Cross and Elizabeth A. Livingstone, eds., The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford;  New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 560.

     [2] A religious group founded by Geert de Groot in the Netherlands which advocated a life of devotion based on the teachings of Scripture.

     [3] Erasmus, Desiderius, Controversies (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011), 224-225.

     [4] Bruce K. Waltke, James M. Houston, and Erika Moore, The Psalms as Christian Lament: A Historical Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI; Cambridge, U.K.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2014), 149.

     [5] Ibid., 150-150.

     [6] Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, Updated 2nd ed. (Dallas, TX: Word Pub., 1995), 312–313.

     [7] Erasmus, Desiderius. In Praise of Folly (Open Road Media, 2016), 15.

     [8] Similar to the issue many 21st century readers have with the King James Version and the need of having it be updated with the NKJV or other modern translations.

     [9] John B. Payne, “Erasmus, Desiderius (c. 1466–1536),” ed. Donald K. McKim, Dictionary of Major Biblical Interpreters (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: InterVarsity Press, 2007), 413.

     [10] Cornelis Augustijn. Erasmus : His Life, Works, and Influence (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 91.

     [11] Second edition: 1519, Third edition: 1522, Fourth edition: 1527, Fifth edition: 1535.

     [12] Cornelis Augustijn. Erasmus : His Life, Works, and Influence (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 92.

     [13] Robert B. Laurin, “The Dead Sea Scrolls and Interpretation,” ed. Ralph G. Turnbull, Baker’s Dictionary of Practical Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1967), 124.

   [14] John B. Payne, “Erasmus, Desiderius (c. 1466–1536),” ed. Donald K. McKim, Dictionary of Major Biblical Interpreters (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: InterVarsity Press, 2007), 417.

   [15] Erasmus’s work was further developed by Theodore Beza whose translation was used in the KJV, and in the development of the Textus Receptus in 1633.

     [16] Bruce K. Waltke, James M. Houston, and Erika Moore, The Psalms as Christian Lament: A Historical Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI; Cambridge, U.K.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2014), 151.

     [17] Erasmus, Desiderius, and James K. Farge. The Correspondence of Erasmus : Letters 1802-1925 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010), 301.

     [18] Philip Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom, with a History and Critical Notes: The History of Creeds, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1878), 583.

     [19] Martin Luther, The Bondage of the Will, trans. J. I. Packer and O. R. Johnston (Westwood, N.J.: Fleming H. Revell, 1957), p. 319.

     [20] Erasmus, Desiderius. In Praise of Folly (Open Road Media, 2016), 78.

  
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Who is the prophet Daniel?

Among the Hebrew prophetic books, no person is as unique or stands out from the pack as much as the prophet Daniel. This prophet had visions, dreams, angelic encounters and possessed the ears of not one, but three major pagan Emperors. So then what can be learned from studying the life and influence of Daniel the prophet?

The assumed author of the biblical book that shares his name the prophet Daniel came into notoriety during the exilic era in Israel. He was among the first wave of deportees taken to Babylon in 605 B.C. which was “the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim along with a cross section of prominent citizenry and craftsmen.”[1] This “deportation of the royal descendants into Babylon had been prophesied by Isaiah to Hezekiah (Is. 39:7)”[2]. Those deportees who were aware of the prophecy were comforted knowing that they had been spared from the dark days which were to come years later with the destruction of Jerusalem.

Along with the now famous three other Hebrew young men Daniel was conscripted into service for the royal court, this follows the trend of assimilating the children of the nobility from subjugated peoples into officers of the court. Daniel was placed in a pagan environment, given a pagan name (Belteshazzar), taught a pagan education, to serve a pagan king in a pagan land, yet Daniel did not abandon his faith in YHWH. Not only did Daniel not conform to the religious atmosphere of Babylon “did not raise issues about non-issues”[3] and only caused trouble in the cases of the food given to Him and his devotion to one God alone.

“Daniel was also a person of deep piety. His book is characterized not only by prophecies of the distant future but also by a sense of wonder at the presence of God. From his youth Daniel was determined to live by God’s law in a distant land (see Daniel 1). In moments of crisis, Daniel turned first to God in prayer before turning to the affairs of state (2:14–23). His enemies even used his regularity at prayer to trap him and turn the king against him. But the grace of God protected Daniel (chap. 6).”[4]

Daniel’s Historical Context

Understanding Daniel, means one must also understand the historical-cultural context he was engaged in. Daniel was able to live long enough to serve at the highest echelon of two Babylonian kings and managed to survive the Persian conquest and served the first Persian king over Babylon as well. Daniel saw the heights of Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar, the collapse under Belshazzar and the conquest by Cyrus the Great. By the end of Daniel’s life much of the Middle East was under the rule of Persia and his writings reflect that rulership. As “the central section of the book is written in Aramaic (2:4b-7:28), the language of diplomacy in the eighth century B.C. and the language of the Medo-Persian Empire.”[5]

Through the actions of Daniel, we are able to see behind the scenes aspects of Nebuchadnezzar, from the dream which haunted him to his era of madness and living like an animal. With Belshazzar Daniel stands as the interpreter of the omen when spoke of the immanence of the Persians breaking through the walls. Daniel’s encounter with Belshazzar also demonstrated the low level of regard the king and his officials placed on the instruments plundered from the temple. Finally, we are also witness to the inner workings of the Persian government under Cyrus the Great along with the wickedness of those who sought to kill Daniel.

The Messiah and God’s Sovereignty

Understanding the setting of Daniel’s message we can now take a more informed approach to appreciating the message of the words and prophetic encounters YHWH gave to him. When we take an overarching look at the prophetic aspects of Daniel with Nebuchadnezzar’s dream in chapter 2, the vision of the four beasts in chapter 4, the vision of the ram and the goat in chapter 8, the ancient of days and the seventy weeks in chapter 9 and the concluding visions of the Greeks (Seleucids/Ptolemaics) in chapters 10-12 a single message appears. It is one which “focuses on the sovereignty of the Creator-Redeemer over the kingdoms of this world, on the suffering and perseverance of the saints during the wars among the kingdoms of this earth and on their final reward.”[6]

The visions experienced by Daniel are pointing to the truth that YHWH is the only one with true control over the nations and the peoples of the world. Not only is He in control but He dispenses His plans to His prophets which may occur generations before their fulfillment. This causes us to look at history in a different light because through the message of Daniel, the prophet “seeks to provide theological understanding of history.”[7] Through Daniel’s prophecies we are introduced to the Greeks, the division of Alexanders Empire into four parts and to the Roman empire which will lead to the coming of the rock cut without hands, aka the Ancient of Days.

The message of Daniel with its theological perspective on history is not only secular but also Messianic, as through the prophecy of the seventy weeks we were given the timetable of the coming of the Messiah. A concept which places an entirely new meaning on Mark 1:15 when Jesus declared “The time is fulfilled, the kingdom of heaven is at hand.” Jesus also later quotes Daniel’s words about the one coming on the clouds. This was not just an off-hand quotation but Jesus used this verse to assert His divinity during His trial.

Who was Daniel the Prophet?

When held up against the other Hebrew prophets Daniel is the lynchpin between the pre and post-exilic eras. As his lifetime spanned the from first incursion of Babylon into Judah all the way to Cyrus who gave the decree for the Judahites to return to their land. In a rare instance among the Hebrew prophets Daniel is mentioned by his contemporaries Jeremiah (9:2) and Ezekiel (14:14, 14:20 and 20:3). Ezekiel’s mentioning is particularly noteworthy as he equates Daniel with the likes of Job and Noah in terms of personal righteousness.

Now what can be learned from studying the life and influence of Daniel the prophet? On a theological level we learn of YHWH’s sovereignty over the nations, His willingness to disclose His plans to the prophets, and we see the hope of the coming Messiah. On a personal level we learn of we learn the low opinion YHWH places on pride, the risks and rewards of persisting in our faith and we learn of the power of prayer. Daniel stands apart from other prophets because He not only experienced prophetic encounters but also demonstrated a living faith in YHWH and was able to be a godly ambassador before pagan kings.

[1] William VanGemeren. Interpreting The Prophetic Word (Grand Rapids MI: Zondervan, 1990), 332

[2] Jack W. Hayford, , Hayford’s Bible Handbook (Nashville, TN; Atlanta, GA; London; Vancouver: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1995).

[3] William VanGemeren. Interpreting The Prophetic Word (Grand Rapids MI: Zondervan, 1990), 339

[4] Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, and R. K. Harrison. Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1995).

[5] C. Hassell Bullock. An Introduction To The Old Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago, IL: Moody Publishers, 2007), 345.

[6] William VanGemeren. Interpreting The Prophetic Word (Grand Rapids MI: Zondervan, 1990), 342

[7] Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, “Daniel, Book Of,” Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988), 574.

  
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