The Life And Influence Of Clement Of Rome

            For the past two thousand years Christians have been wrestling with the notion of how to best communicate the truths of Christ in the world of “today.” As the ebbs and flows of culture and worldview shift through each generation we are constantly faced with the task of remaining true to the doctrines of scripture while at the same time figuring out how to apply those truths. For us to better understand how to do this it could be best to look at how the church in the first post-apostolic generation found their theological and practical footing in the world around them.

            To come to an understanding of how the church is to operate beyond the era of the Apostles we must go back to the beginning and observe one of the earliest post-apostolic writers and figureheads of the church in that era, Clement of Rome. By learning how that second generation of the church interpreted the scriptures and lived out their lives we discover a compass by which we can better navigate our own faith within this era of history. Therefore, we must ask the question of who was Clement of Rome and what impact did his epistle to the Corinthians have on the Christian community of his era?

Setting the Stage

            Before we can come to a better understanding of the man Clement of Rome we first need to reconstruct the world he lived in. In many ways the world of Clement was no different that the world we see presented in the book of Acts. Rome remains supreme throughout the Mediterranean and parts of the Near East, although there was much turmoil along Germanic borders. In this era Rome inched closer to the zenith of its power under a mix of benevolent and tyrannical rulers. It is at this point in which Domitian laid claim to the throne in 86AD following the death of his older brother Titus, the same Titus who oversaw the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD.

            Unlike his father Vespasian and his brother Titus, “Domitian’s personal ambition coupled with the worship of the Roman state created a new politico-religious atmosphere inimical to the growing church.”^[1] He revitalized the Imperial cult as a means to consolidate his power and unify Roman religious practices. Domitian even went as far as to demand the funds (temple taxes) which used to go to the Temple in Jerusalem be reallocated to Rome.[2] Domitian was seen as a tyrant by many but managed to maintain the allegiance of the army, that is until his murder in 96 AD. The death of Domitian ended the dynasty of Vespasian and ushered in the short reign of Nerva from 96-98 AD and the relatively longer reign of Trajan from 98-117 AD which saw Rome reach the climax of its territorial control.

            On the outskirts of the power and politics of Rome we find that the church which began under the likes of James, Barnabas, Peter and Paul was continuing to grow despite persecution and conflict. In the era of Clement the church is faced with discerning how they are to live out their faith following the deaths of Peter, Paul and the rest of the apostles, with the exception of John. With the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD the “capital” of the church had moved to Antioch in Syria and “by the end of the fourth century Antioch was a city of half a million people and half of these were Christians.”^[3] Other centers of influence such as Rome, Ephesus, Corinth and Alexandria were also developing as centers of Christian influence.

            Upon the established roads and shipping lanes of the Roman Empire the church continued to grow and thrive. Yet this growth was not without pain or conflict as in this era the church was occupied with resisting religious syncretism (i.e. Corinthian Christians eating in pagan Temples), the remnants of the Judaizers, Gnostics incursions, and renewed emphasis on the Imperial Cult and Roman Pantheon and emergence of early heretics such as the Nicolaitans, and the followers of Cerinthus. In many ways “the early Christian was almost bound to divorce himself from the social and economic life of his time”^[4] as the culture around them was in many ways contrary to the teachings of Christ. Because of these challenges the church at this time was forced to better organize itself and establish a form of hierarchy and communication between its major centers.

            With the continued growth of the church and the reforms under Domitian being enforced eventually the two forces collided. In a persecution not seen since the era of Nero we find the foundations of the latter life of Clement. The church historian Eusebius records that:

Domitian, having shown great cruelty toward many, and having unjustly put to death no small number of well-born and notable men at Rome, and having without cause exiled and confiscated the property of a great many other illustrious men, finally became a successor of Nero in his hatred and enmity toward God.^[5]

            Domitian persecuted not just Jews and Christians[6] but also family members on charges of atheism, going as far as executing his cousin Flavius Clement.^[7] Yet it also appears that Domitian was benevolent to the likes of the Jewish historian Josephus^[8] during this era of persecution which reached its climax not long before Clement wrote his epistle to the Corinthians.

Who Was Clement of Rome?

            With the setting established we may now begin our investigation into who Clement of Rome[9] was and what his role within the church involved and how he left an impact upon it. It is believed that Clement was born around 30 AD and lived until 100 AD as his death is mention by Jerome who states, “he died in the third year of Trajan and a church built at Rome preserves the memory of his name unto this day.”^[10] This timing implies that Clement was a contemporary of the Apostles in his early life and co-laborer with the likes of Hermas, Ignatius, and Polycarp later in life. Clement’s ministry can be seen then as being one of the bridges between the apostolic age and the age of the martyrs.

            When it comes to establishing the identity of Clement there is debate whether he was the same Clement mentioned in Philippians 4:3 by Paul. Early Christian “writers such as Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome^[11] supposed this Clement to be the apostolic father known as Clement of Rome. Modern scholars, however, believe this identification is highly unlikely.”^[12] This conflict between ancient opinions and modern conjecture clouds the possibility of Clement of Rome being the aforementioned companion of Paul yet it does not diminish his standing in the church during this era.

            The platform by which Clement was able to deliver his epistle to the Corinthians came from his appointment as bishop of Rome. There is debate⁷ whether he was the second or fourth bishop after Peter, this stems from the notion that “Linus and Cletus could not have been Bishops of Rome, for they were merely coadjutors of the Apostles during their lifetime… and thus he (Clement) should unquestionably be made the first of the Roman bishops.”^[13] Despite the debate of whether Clement was second or fourth bishop of Rome, Clement’s presence in Rome and his appointment presents the possibility that he was an acquaintance of the apostle Peter^[14] who died in 66 AD in the same city. Recognition of Clements rank as bishop can be found in “the Shepherd of Hermas, a work not later than the episcopate of Pius (a.d. 141–156), the writer of which claims to have been contemporary with Clement.”^[15]

The Epistle to the Corinthians

            Being one of the early bishops of Rome was not all that Clement was known for, perhaps his greatest contribution to the early days of the post-apostolic age of the church comes in the form of his epistle to the Corinthian church. The epistle opens with a reference to a persecution^[16]  which is most likely the one perpetrated by Domitian rather than Nero.

It appears from chapter 5 to be later than the persecution in the time of Nero, and from chapters 42–44 it is clear that the age of the apostles is regarded as past. It can therefore scarcely be older than 75–80 a.d. On the other hand chapter 44 speaks of presbyters who were appointed by the apostles and were still alive, and there is no trace of any of the controversies or persecutions of the second century.^[17]

            These additional factors along with other circumstances led many to believe that the epistle was written around 96 AD^[18], and perhaps as early as 94 AD^[19]. If this dating is correct it would mean that the epistle was written at roughly the same time as the later estimated dating of the book of Revelation.^[20]

            Given the apparent dating of this epistle it would make it “probably the earliest extant Christian epistle outside the NT.”^[21] In part to this early date and its popularity among various churches in the following decades it is no wonder why it was included in various early collections of scriptures^[22] along with the likes of Shepherd of Hermas, and Epistle of Barnabas. The validity and popularity of this early document is given extra weight by Eusebius’ comments:

There is extant an epistle of this Clement which is acknowledged to be genuine and is of considerable length and of remarkable merit. He wrote it in the name of the church of Rome to the church of Corinth, when a sedition had arisen in the latter church. We know that this epistle also has been publicly used in a great many churches both in former times and in our own.^[23]

            As we begin to examine the epistle, we are presented with a Corinthian church which is forty or so years removed from Paul’s letters to it. In many ways we can see this as the second generation of the Church in Corinth. This letter then gives us a glimpse into how the church grew and changed in the light of Paul’s three epistles which were sent to it. Unfortunately, it appears that very little changed in the Corinthian Church in the years between Paul and Clement as once again a schism had broken out which needed a remedy. What is interesting here is that instead of an apostolic office offering council we instead see the church in Rome through Clement attempting to intervene in the crisis. “The Roman Church now intervenes because of Christian concern over this distressing situation, not because it claims authority over other churches.”^[24]

            The issue at hand at Corinth stems from a rebellion by younger members of the congregation who were attempting to steal authority from their elders (presbyters). Others^[25] view the issue as having to do in part with these younger men being unsatisfied with the financial provisions which were being sent to them by the church in Rome. Clement in his own words highlights the schism which had arisen early in the letter:

It is disgraceful, beloved, yea, highly disgraceful, and unworthy of your Christian profession, that such a thing should be heard of as that the most stedfast and ancient Church of the Corinthians should, on account of one or two persons, engage in sedition against its presbyters.^[26]

            This dispute in Corinth presented the church an opportunity to continue to refine its process of establishing a sense of order and episcopal succession following the apostolic age. This epistle then becomes an added source outside of Paul and Peters epistles which could be used to better govern the church even in times of dispute.

            Aside from the schism Clement’s epistle addresses a host of other topics such as a renewed call to holy living and the eradication of envy from the hearts of his readers. Clement attempts to achieve this through the use of rhetoric and instruction. Clement “tells no stories from the Gospels about Jesus’ wonders but appeals, rather, to Jesus’ words of moral instruction.”^[27] In many ways Clement follows in the footsteps of Paul in how he presents his ideas in a logical way which appeals to the scriptures and calls on the people to live according to Christ’s standards.

            The epistle covers a variety of topics in order to hammer home its original purpose of bringing the rebels to repentance (ch. 48-53) and resetting the spiritual foundation of the Corinthian church. The epistle covers matters such as the deaths of Peter and Paul (ch. 5), God’s desire for people to repent (ch. 8), examples of faithful people in the Old Testament (ch. 9-12), faith vs. good works (ch. 32-34) and the need for order and structure in the church (ch. 40-41).

            Clement is able to ground his key arguments with a heavy use of the Old Testament (LXX) scriptures which make up almost a quarter^[28] of the epistle’s contents and references books such as Psalms, Isaiah and Deuteronomy. The epistle also contains a variety of quotations from New Testament books such as Matthew, Romans, 1 Corinthians, James and Hebrews. The use of these books by Clement demonstrate how these “books that later became part of the NT canon were circulating among the churches by the end of the first century.”^[29] Clement’s epistle to the Corinthians then can be seen as a great theological work which establishes a precedent of relying heavily on what would be known as both the Old Testament and the New Testament albeit with “Hellenistic cultural influences which have merged with the Judaeo-Christian element.”^[30]

The Legacy of Clement of Rome

            It appears that it did not take long for Clement’s epistle to gain popularity and favor within the larger Christian church. The likes of Irenaeus,^[31] Clement of Alexandria^[32] and Origen^[33] attest to the lasting influence of Clement’s work. In the Corinthian church itself we have evidence that this epistle was read regularly for decades^[34] and perhaps even longer. It is an epistle which stands apart from its post-apostolic contemporaries and is free from“the curious exegetics of Barnabas, the theological crudities of Hermas, the fervid sacerdotalism of Ignatius; and it is a comparison which may serve to show the emergence of the characteristic Roman Christianity.”

            Perhaps in an unorthodox manner we can establish the popularity and influence of an early writer such as Clement by the pseudographical works attributed to them later on. While the first epistle to the Corinthians is attributed to Clement several other works have had his name (for various reasons) attached to them. These works include 2 Clement, the Recognitions of Clement, various letters to James (the brother of Jesus) and a pair of epistles dealing with the matter of virginity. With this wide use of Clement’s name in pseudographical works it becomes clear that he was held in high esteem in the decades and centuries following the apostolic age.

Conclusion

            After investigating the historical setting of Clement in the latter part of the first century and witnessing the purpose and contents of his epistle to the Corinthians we finally begin to grasp the importance of Clement and his epistle in not only his era but also the following generations. Clement was seen as the first major successor to Peter as bishop of Rome and utilized his position and extensive knowledge of the scriptures to present an epistle to aid the struggling Corinthian church. In doing so he established a better format of deploying organizational force within the church while also exhorting the people to continue in the teachings of the apostles who only a generation earlier had begun to change the world.

            Clement then is seen as the first pillar of the post-apostolic church who validated the continued use of the Old Testament, demonstrated use of what would become the New Testament and established what would be the hallmark of Roman Christianity: an intellectual approach based on reason and rhetoric in order to renew and refine the inner spirit of those who follow Christ. Therefore, it seems best to end with the words of Clement and his exhortation to a church founded by Paul but kept alive through his spiritual successors.

And we, too, being called by His will in Christ Jesus, are not justified by ourselves, nor by our own wisdom, or understanding, or godliness, or works which we have wrought in holiness of heart; but by that faith through which, from the beginning, Almighty God has justified all men; to whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen.^[35]

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^[1] Merrill Chapin Tenney, New Testament Times (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2004), 324.

[2] Justo Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity Volume 1: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation 2^nd  edition (New York, NY: HarperOne, 2010), 46.

^[3] Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, Updated 2nd ed. (Dallas, TX: Word Pub., 1995), 29.

^[4] Shelley, Church History , 40.

^[5] Eusebius of Caesaria, “The Church History of Eusebius,” in Eusebius: Church History, Life of Constantine the Great, and Oration in Praise of Constantine, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, trans. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, vol. 1, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series (New York: Christian Literature Company, 1890), 147.

[6] Christianity was not recognized as an official religion at this time since it was firmly divided from Judaism.

^[7] James Stevenson, A New Eusebius: Documents Illustrating the History of the Church to AD 337 (London: SPCK, 1987), 6.

^[8] Josephus, The Life, Against Apion, ed. T. E. Page et al., trans. H. J. Thackeray, vol. I, The Loeb Classical Library (London; Cambridge, MA: William Heinemann Ltd; Harvard University Press, 1966), 157–159.

[9] aka Clemens Romanus.

^[10] Jerome, “Lives of Illustrious Men,” in Theodoret, Jerome, Gennadius, Rufinus: Historical Writings, Etc., ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, trans. Ernest Cushing Richardson, vol. 3, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series (New York: Christian Literature Company, 1892), 366.

^[11] Ibid, 366.

^[12] Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, and R. K. Harrison, Thomas Nelson Publishers, eds., Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1995).

^[13] Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, eds., “Decrees of Fabian,” in Fathers of the Third and Fourth Centuries: The Twelve Patriarchs, Excerpts and Epistles, the Clementina, Apocrypha, Decretals, Memoirs of Edessa and Syriac Documents, Remains of the First Ages, trans. S. D. F. Salmond, vol. 8, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1886), 641.

^[14] Ibid, 122.

^[15] George Salmon, “Clemens Romanus,” ed. William Smith and Henry Wace, A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines (London: John Murray, 1877–1887), 554.

^[16] Clement of Rome, “The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 5.

^[17] Pope Clement I et al., The Apostolic Fathers, ed. Kirsopp Lake, vol. 1, The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge MA; London: Harvard University Press, 1912–1913), 4–5.

^[18] F. L. Cross and Elizabeth A. Livingstone, eds., The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford;  New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 363.

^[19] Henry Bettenson, ed., The Early Christian Fathers: A Selection from the Writings of the Fathers from St. Clement of Rome to St. Athanasius, trans. Henry Bettenson (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 2.

^[20] Merrill Chapin Tenney, New Testament Times (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2004), 338.

^[21] Walter A. Elwell and Philip Wesley Comfort, Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale Reference Library (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2001), 292.

^[22] Rick Brannan, “Apostolic Fathers,” ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

^[23] Eusebius of Caesaria, “The Church History of Eusebius,” in Eusebius: Church History, Life of Constantine the Great, and Oration in Praise of Constantine, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, trans. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, vol. 1, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series (New York: Christian Literature Company, 1890), 147.

^[24] Henry Bettenson, ed., The Early Christian Fathers: A Selection from the Writings of the Fathers from St. Clement of Rome to St. Athanasius, trans. Henry Bettenson (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 2.

^[25] Laurence L. Welborn, “Clement, First Epistle of,” ed. David Noel Freedman, The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 1059.

^[26] Clement of Rome, “The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 18.

^[27] Luke Timothy Johnson, Among the Gentiles: Greco-Roman Religion and Christianity (New Haven;  London: Yale University Press, 2009), 195.

^[28] Matthew A. Wilcoxen, “Clement, First Letter of,” ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary   (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

^[29] Walter A. Elwell and Philip Wesley Comfort, Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale Reference Library (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2001), 293.

^[30] Manlio Simonetti, Biblical Interpretation in the Early Church: An Historical Introduction to Patristic Exegesis (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994), 12.

^[31] Irenaeus of Lyons, “Irenæus against Heresies,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 416.

^[32] Clement of Alexandria, “The Stromata, or Miscellanies,” in Fathers of the Second Century: Hermas, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Clement of Alexandria (Entire), ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 2, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 428.

^[33] Origen, “De Principiis,” in Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, trans. Frederick Crombie, vol. 4, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 273.

^[34] Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, Updated 2nd ed. (Dallas, TX: Word Pub., 1995), 61–62.

^[35] Clement of Rome, “The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 13.

 

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